the mongol empire of the 13th and 14th centuries was the largest contiguous land empire in history and the second largest empire by landmass second only to the british empire originating in mongolia in east asia the mongol empire eventually stretched from eastern europe and parts of central europe to the sea of japan extending northward into parts of the arctic eastward and southward into the indian subcontinent mainland southeast asia and the iranian plateau and westward as far as the levant and the carpathian mountains the mongol empire emerged from the unification of several nomadic tribes in the mongol homeland under the leadership of genghis khan whom a council proclaimed as the ruler of all mongols in 1206. the empire grew rapidly under his rule and that of his descendants who sent out invading armies in every direction the vast transcontinental empire connected the east with the west the pacific to the mediterranean in an enforced paxmongolica allowing the dissemination and exchange of trade technologies commodities and ideologies across eurasia the empire began to split due to wars over succession as the grandchildren of genghis khan disputed whether the royal line should follow from his son an initial air ogdie or from one of his other sons such as tollwhi shekatai or joshi the tuluits prevailed after a bloody purge of ogdiet and shakatate factions but disputes continued among the descendants of tully a key reason for the split was the dispute over whether the mongol empire would become a sedentary cosmopolitan empire or would stay true to the mongol nomadic and step based lifestyle after monk khan died rival curl thai council simultaneously elected different successors the brothers eric bokey and kublai khan who fought each other in the toluene civil war and also dealt with challenges from the descendants of other sons of genghis kublai successfully took power but civil war ensued as he sought unsuccessfully to regain control of the chagate and opiate families during the reigns of genghis and obi the mongols suffered the occasional defeat when the less skilled general received the command the siberian to meds defeated the mongol forces under borokula around 1215-1217 jalal alden defeated shiki chig at the battle of parwan in 1221 and the jinn general's haida and pua defeated dolkalk in 12 30. in each case the mongols returned shortly after with a much larger army led by one of their best generals and were invariably victorious the battle of angelite in galilee in 1260 marked the first time that the mongols would not return to immediately avenge a defeat due to a combination of the death of monk khan in 1259 the hollywood civil war between eric bokey and kublai khan and burke khan of the golden horde attacking halakku khan and persia although the mongols launched many more invasions of the levant briefly occupying it and raiding as far as gaza after a decisive victory at the battle of wadi al-khatsnadar in 1299 they withdrew due to various geopolitical factors by the time of kublai's death in 1294 the mongol empire had fractured into four separate khanates or empires each pursuing its own interests and objectives the golden horde khanaid in the northwest the shagatai khanate in central asia the ilkinade in the southwest and the yuan dynasty in the east based in modern day beijing in 1304 the three western connets briefly accepted the nominal suzerainty of the yuan dynasty but in 1368 the han chinese ming dynasty took over the mongol capital the genghis said rulers of the yuan retreated to the mongolian homeland and continued to rule there as the northern yuan dynasty the ilkanae disintegrated in the period 1335-1353 the golden horde had broken into competing connets by the end of the 15th century and was defeated and thrown out of russia in 1480 by the grand duchy of moscow while the chagatai khanate lasted in one form or another until 1687. history pre-empire context the area around mongolia manchuria and parts of north china had been controlled by the liao dynasty since the 10th century in 1125 the jinn dynasty founded by the churchians overthrew the liao dynasty and attempted to gain control over formerly out territory in mongolia in the 1130s the jinn dynasty rulers known as the golden kings successfully resisted the khmag mongol confederation ruled at the time by kabul khan great grandfather of genghis khan the mongolian plateau was occupied mainly by five powerful tribal confederations kurwites kamag mongol naaman murgid and tatar the jin emperors following a policy of divide and rule encouraged disputes among the tribes especially between the tatters and the mongols in order to keep the nomadic tribes distracted by their own battles and thereby away from the gen kabul's successor was ambag icon who was betrayed by the tatters handed over to the jerkin and executed the mongols retaliated by raiding the frontier resulting in a failed jerk encounter attack in 1143 in 1147 the jinn somewhat changed their policy signing a peace treaty with the mongols and withdrawing from a score of forts the mongols then resumed attacks on the tatters to avenge the death of their lake khan opening a long period of active hostilities the jinn and tatar armies defeated the mongols in 1161 during the rise of the mongol empire in the 13th century the usually cold parch steps of central asia enjoyed their mildest wettest conditions in more than a millennium it is thought that this resulted in a rapid increase in the number of war horses and other livestock which significantly enhanced mongol military strength rise of genghis khan known during his childhood as temujin genghis khan was a son of a mongol chieftain as a young man he rose very rapidly by working with tokul khan of the karate the most powerful mongol leader at the time was kurtay he was given the chinese title wang which means king temujin went to war against kurtay after temujin defeated wang khan he gave himself the name genghis khan he then enlarged his mongol state under himself and his kin the term mongol came to be used to refer to all mongolic-speaking tribes under the control of genghis khan his most powerful allies were his father's friend period chieftain togrel and temujin's childhood onta jamaica of the chadron clan with their help temujin defeated the murka tribe rescued his wife bort and went on to defeat the naamans and the tatters temujin forbade looting of his enemies without permission and he implemented a policy of sharing spoils with his warriors and their families instead of giving it all to the aristocrats these policies brought him into conflict with his uncles who were also legitimate heirs to the throne they regarded temujin not as a leader but as an insolent usurper this dissatisfaction spread to his generals and other associates and some mongols who had previously been allies broke their allegiance warren sued and temujin and the forces still loyal to him prevailed defeating the remaining rival tribes between 1203 and 1205 and bringing them under his sway in 1206 temujin was crowned as the cake and of the yek mongol allah set a curl tie it was there that he assumed the title of genghis khan instead of one of the old tribal titles such as gor khan or taion khan marking the start of the mongol empire early organization genghis khan introduced many innovative ways of organizing his army for example dividing it into decimal subsections of arbens sons mingan's and tumins the chig the imperial guard was founded and divided into day and night guards genghis rewarded those who had been loyal to him and placed them in high positions as heads of army units and households even though many of them came from very low ranking clans compared to the units he gave to his loyal companions those assigned to his own family members were relatively few he proclaimed a new code of law of the empire exashag or yasa later he expanded it to cover much of the everyday life and political affairs of the nomads he forbade the selling of women theft fighting among the mongols and the hunting of animals during the breeding season he appointed his adopted brother shige kutu as supreme judge ordering him to keep records of the empire in addition to laws regarding family food and the army genghis also decreed religious freedom and supported domestic and international trade he exempted the poor and the clergy from taxation he also encouraged literacy adopting the weaker script which would form the weaker mongolian script of the empire and he ordered the weaker tatunga who had previously served the khan of naamans to instruct his sons push into central asia genghis quickly came into conflict with the jinn dynasty of the churchians and the western shia of the tanks in northern china he also had to deal with two other powers tibet and kara ketai then he moved towards the west gaining claim to parts of russia ukraine and whole countries in central asia such as uzbekistan kazakhstan and other countries before his death genghis khan divided his empire among his sons and immediate family making the mongol empire the joint property of the entire imperial family who along with the mongol aristocracy constituted the ruling class religious policies prior to the three western khanates adoption of islam genghis khan and a number of his yuan successors placed restrictions on religious practices they saw as alien muslims including hawaii and jews were collectively referred to as huawei muslims were forbidden from halal or zabiyah butchering while jews were similarly forbidden from kashrut or shahida butchering referring to the conquered subjects as our slaves genghis khan demanded they no longer be able to refuse food or drink and imposed restrictions on slaughter muslims had to slaughter sheep in secret among all the alien peoples only the hawaii hawaii say we do not eat mongol food by the aid of heaven we have pacified you you are our slaves yet you do not eat our food or drink how can this be right he thereupon made them eat if you slaughter sheep you will be considered guilty of a crime he issued a regulation to that effect all the muslims say if someone else slaughters we do not eat because the poor people are upset by this from now on museulum and huawei and zuhu hui no matter who kills will eat and must see slaughtering sheep themselves and cease the right of circumcision genghis khan arranged for the chinese taoist master chu shuji to visit him in afghanistan and also gave his subjects the right to religious freedom despite his own shamanistic beliefs death of genghis khan and expansion under ogdei genghis khan died on august 18 1227 by which time the mongol empire ruled from the pacific ocean to the caspian sea an empire twice the size of the roman empire or the muslim caliphate at their height genghis named his third son the charismatic ogdiai as his heir according to mongol tradition genghis khan was buried in a secret location the regency was originally held by ogdia's younger brother tollway until ogdei's formal election at the curl tie in 1229 among his first actions ogdei sent troops to subjugate the bashkers bulkers and other nations in the keep shock controlled steps in the east ogdei's army's re-established mongol authority in manchuria crushing the eastern shia regime and the water tatters in 1230 the great khan personally led his army in the campaign against the jin dynasty of china ogdi's general supitai captured the capital of emperor wanyan shokshu in the siege of kefang in 1232 the jin dynasty collapsed in 1234 when the mongols captured keicho the town to which juanyan shokshu had fled in 1234 three armies commanded by ogdiai's sons kachu and koten and the tango general shaigan invaded southern china with the assistance of the song dynasty the mongols finished off the gin in 1234. many han chinese and kitan defected to the mongols to fight against the gem two han chinese leaders xi tianz muhammad and the kitan xiao zhala defected and commanded the three tumens in the mongol army muhammad and shi tian served ogai khan luhama and xi shinchang led armies against western shia for the mongols there were four han tumens and three kitan tumens with each tomb and consisting of ten thousand troops the yuan dynasty created a han army from gin defectors and another of ex-song troops called the newly submitted army in the west oakd eyes general karma khan destroyed jalal ad din ming bernu the last job the charisma empire the small kingdoms in southern persia voluntarily accepted mongol supremacy in east asia there were a number of mongolian campaigns into goryeo korea but ogdia's attempt to annex the korean peninsula met with little success goh jong the king of goriello surrendered but later revolted and massacred mongol to rugachis he then moved his imperial court from gaesong to gangwa island invasions of kievan russ and central china meanwhile in an offensive action against the song dynasty mongol armies captured cyong yang the young sea and sichuan but did not secure their control over the conquered areas the song generals were able to recapture xiong yang from the mongols in 1239 after the sudden death of ogdiai's son kachu in chinese territory the mongols withdrew from southern china although kachu's brother prince cotin invaded tibet immediately after their withdrawal batu khan another grandson of genghis khan overran the territories of the bulkers the elans the kuipe shacks bashkers mordbins chuvash and other nations of the southern russian steppe by 1237 the mongols were encroaching upon riyazan the first kivan rus principality they were to attack after a three-day siege involving fierce fighting the mongols captured the city and massacred its inhabitants they then proceeded to destroy the army of the grand principality of vladimir at the battle of the sit river the mongols captured the alania capital mahis in 1238.
by 1240 all kiev and russ had fallen to the asian invaders except for a few northern cities mongol troops under kermakhan and persia connecting his invasion of transcaucasia with the invasion of batu and subutai forced the georgian and armenian nobles to surrender as well giovanni de plano carpini the pope's envoy to the mongol great khan traveled through kiev in february 1246 and wrote they attacked russia belarus and ukraine where they made great havoc destroying cities and fortresses and slaughtering men and they laid siege to kiev the capital of ukraine after they had besieged the city for a long time they took it and put the inhabitants to death when we were journeying through that land we came across countless skulls and bones of dead men lying about on the ground kiev had been a very large and thickly populated town but now it has been reduced almost to nothing for there are at the present time scarce 200 houses there and the inhabitants are kept in complete slavery despite the military successes strife continued within the mongol ranks badu's relations with gayuk ogdei's eldest son and bori the beloved grandson of shaggatai khan remained tense and worsened during body's victory banquet in southern kievan rus nevertheless bayuk and buri could not do anything to harm bhadi's position as long as his uncle ogdeau was still alive oak d i continued with offensives into the indian subcontinent temporarily investing ucht lahore and multan of the delhi sultanate and stationing a mongol overseer and kashmir though the invasions into india eventually failed and were forced to retreat in northeastern asia ogdei agreed to end the conflict with goryeo by making it a client state and sent mongolian princesses to wed goriel princess he then reinforced his chig with the koreans through both diplomacy and military force push into central europe the advance into europe continued with mongol invasions of poland and hungary when the western flank of the mongols plundered polish cities a european alliance among the poles the moravians and the christian military orders of the hospitals teutonic knights and the templars assembled sufficient forces to halt although briefly the mongol advance at legnitsa the hungarian army their croatian allies and the templar knights were beaten by the mongols at the banks of the sio river on april 11 1241 before badu's forces could continue on to vienna and northern albania news of ogdei's death in december 1241 brought a halt to the invasion as was customary in mongol military tradition all princes of genghis's line had to attend the curl tie to elect a successor batu and his western mongol army withdrew from central europe the next year today researchers doubt that ogdei's death was the sole reason for the mongols withdrawal badi didn't return to mongolia so a new con wasn't elected until 1246 climatic and environmental factors as well as the strong fortifications and castles of europe played an important role in the mongols decision to withdraw post ogdi power struggles following the great khan ogdei's death in 1241 and before the next curl tie obdei's widow torijin took over the empire she persecuted her husband's kitan and muslim officials and gave high positions to her own allies she built palaces cathedrals and social structures on an imperial scale supporting religion and education she was able to win over most mongol aristocrats to support ogdei's son gayuk but batu ruler of the golden horde refused to come to the curl tie claiming that he was ill and that the mongolian climate was too harsh for him the resulting stalemate lasted more than four years and further destabilized the unity of the empire when genghis khan's youngest brother temuj threatened to seize the throne gaiu came to karakorum to try to secure his position badu eventually agreed to send his brothers and generals to the curl thai convened by torijin in 1246. gaiut by this time was ill and alcoholic but his campaigns in manchuria and europe gave him the kind of stature necessary for a great khan he was duly elected at a ceremony attended by mongols and foreign dignitaries from both within and without the empire leaders of vassal nations representatives from rome and other entities who came to the curl tie to show their respects and conduct diplomacy gay took steps to reduce corruption announcing that he would continue the policies of his father ogdeau not those of torajin he punished torajin's supporters except for governor argue and the elder he also replaced young kara hiluku the khan of the shakatai khanate with his favorite cousin yeshu monk to assert his newly conferred powers he restored his father's officials to their former positions and was surrounded by weaker naaman and central asian officials favoring han chinese commanders who helped his father conquer northern china he continued military operations in korea advanced into song china in the south and into iraq in the west and ordered an empire-wide census gaiu also divided the sultanate of rum between his ad din kaikos and rukh nad din khalid arslan though kaikos disagreed with this decision not all parts of the empire respected gayuk's election the hashashans former mongol allies whose grand master hassan jalaluddin had offered his submission to genghis khan in 1221 angered gayuk by refusing to submit instead he murdered the mongol generals in persia bayuk appointed his best friend's father ilijidi as chief commander of the troops in persia and gave them the task of both reducing the strongholds of the nizari ismailis and conquering the abbasids at the center of the islamic world iran and iraq death of gayuk in 1248 gayuk raised more troops and suddenly marched westward from the mongol capital of karakoram the reasoning was unclear some sources wrote that he sought to recuperate at his personal estate emel others suggested that he might have been moving to join elite eye to conduct a full-scale conquest of the middle east or possibly to make a surprise attack on his rival cousin batu khan in russia suspicious of gayuk's motives sorghutani becky the widow of genghis's son tolwi secretly warned her nephew batu of gayuk's approach badu had himself been traveling eastward at the time possibly to pay homage or perhaps with other plans in mind before the forces of batu and gayuk met gayuk sick and worn out by travel died on route comsinger and xinjiang possibly a victim of poison gayek's widow okel kamesh stepped forward to take control of the empire but she lacked the skills of her mother-in-law torijin and her young sons koja and naku and other princes challenged her authority to decide on a new great khan batu called the curl tie on his own territory in 1250 as it was far from the mongolian heartland members of the oakdiet and chagate families refused to attend the curl thai offered the throne to batu but he rejected it claiming he had no interest in the position badu instead nominated monk a grandson of genghis from his son tuli's lineage monk was leading a mongol army in russia the northern caucasus in hungary the pro-toli faction supported badi's choice and monk was elected though given the curl ties limited attendance and location it was of questionable validity lottie sent monk under the protection of his brothers burke and tuke teemer and his son sartok to assemble a more formal curl tie at coto errol in the heartland the supporters of monk repeatedly invited ogil kaimesh and the other major oakdiet and shaggate princes to attend the curl tie but they refused each time the okiet and cheggate princes refused to accept a descendant of genghis's son tully as leader demanding that only descendants of genghis's son ogdeau could be great khan rule of mankind when monk's mother sorghutani and their cousin burke organized a second curl tie on july 1 1251 the assembled throng proclaimed monk great khan of the mongol empire this marked a major shift in the leadership of the empire transferring power from the descendants of genghis's son ogdei to the descendants of genghis's son tully the decision was acknowledged by a few of the ogded and shaggate princes such as monk's cousin kaiden and the deposed khan kara hugu but one of the other legitimate heirs ogdei's grandson shireman sought to topple monk shireman moved with his own forces toward the emperor's nomadic palace with a plan for an armed attack but monk was alerted by his faulconer of the plan monk ordered an investigation of the plot which led to a series of major trials all across the empire many members of the mongol elite were found guilty and put to death with estimates ranging from 77 to 300 though princes of genghis's royal line were often exiled rather than executed monk confiscated the estates of the ogdiet and the shagatai families and shared the western part of the empire with his ally batu khan after the bloody purge monk ordered a general amnesty for prisoners and captives but thereafter the power of the great khan's throne remained firmly with the descendants of towie administrative reforms monk was a serious man who followed the loss of his ancestors and avoided alcoholism he was tolerant of outside religions and artistic styles leading to the building of foreign merchants quarters buddhist monasteries mosques and christian churches in the mangle capital as construction projects continued karakoram was adorned with chinese european and persian architecture one famous example was a large silver tree with cleverly designed pipes that dispensed various drinks the tree topped by a triumphant angel was crafted by guillaume voucher a parisian goldsmith although he had a strong chinese contingent monk relied heavily on muslim and mongol administrators and launched a series of economic reforms to make government expenses more predictable his court limited government spending and prohibited nobles and troops from abusing civilians or issuing edicts without authorization he commuted the contribution system to a fixed poll tax which was collected by imperial agents and forwarded to units in need his court also tried to lighten the tax burden on commoners by reducing tax rates he also centralized control of monetary affairs and reinforced the guards at the postal relays monk ordered an empire-wide census in 1252 that took several years to complete and was not finished until nav garage in the far northwest was counted in 1258 in another move to consolidate his power monk assigned his brothers halaku and kuplai to rule persia and mongol held china respectively in the southern part of the empire he continued his predecessor struggle against the song dynasty in order to outflank the song from three directions monk dispatched mongol armies under his brother kublai to yunnan and under his uncle e a coup to subdue korea and pressure the song from that direction as well kublai conquered the dali kingdom in 1253 after the dali king dwanzingji defected to the mongols and helped them conquer the rest of yunnan monk's general kordai stabilized his control over tibet inducing leading monasteries to submit to mongol rule subatai's son or yonkadai reduced the neighboring peoples of yunnan to submission and went to war with the kingdom of diabetes under the tran dynasty in northern vietnam in 1258 but they had a drawback the mongol empire tried to invade dive yet again in 1285 and 1287 but were defeated both times new invasions of the middle east and southern china after stabilizing the empire's finances monk once again sought to expand its borders at coral taius in karakorum 1253 and 1258 he approved new invasions of the middle east and south china monk put halaku an overall charge of military and civil affairs in persia and appointed shagates and jokids to join halaku's army the muslims from caspine denounced the menace of the nizari ismailis a well-known sect of shiites the mongol name and commander kit bukka began to assault several ismaili fortresses in 1253 before holaku advanced in 1256 ismaili grand master rook nalden kershaw surrendered in 1257 and was executed all of the ismaili strongholds in persia were destroyed by halaku's army in 1257 except for gerdku which held out until 1271. the center of the islamic empire at the time was baghdad which had held power for 500 years but was suffering internal divisions when its caliph alma stacem refused to submit to the mongols baghdad was besieged and captured by the mongols in 1258 and subjected to a merciless sack an event considered as one of the most catastrophic events in the history of islam and sometimes compared to the rupture of the kaaba with the destruction of the abbasid caliphate halaku had an open route to syria and moved against the other muslim powers in the region his army advanced toward ayubid ruled syria capturing small local states on route the sultan al-nasir yusuf of the iu bids refused to show himself before holaku however he had accepted mongol supremacy two decades earlier when halaku headed further west the armenians from cilicia the cell jukes from ramen the christian realms of antioch and tripoli submitted to mongol authority joining them in their assault against the muslims while some cities surrendered without resisting others such as maya forrican fought back their populations were massacred and the cities were sacked death of monk khan meanwhile in the northwestern portion of the empire badu's successor and younger brother burke sent punitive expeditions to ukraine belarus lithuania and poland this engine began brewing between the northwestern and southwestern sections of the mongol empire as badu suspected that holaku's invasion of western asia would result in the elimination of bhatu's own dominance there in the southern part of the empire monk khan himself led his army did not complete the conquest of china military operations were generally successful but prolonged so the forces did not withdraw to the north as was customary when the weather turned hot disease ravaged the mongol forces with bloody epidemics and monk died there on august 11 1259 this event began a new chapter in the history of the mongols as again a decision needed to be made on a new great khan mongol armies across the empire withdrew from their campaigns to convene a new curl tie disunity dispute over succession monk's brother halaku broke off his successful military advance into syria withdrawing the bulk of his forces to mugen and leading only a small contingent under his general kitbaka the opposing forces in the region the christian crusaders and muslim mamliks both recognizing that the mongols were the greater threat took advantage of the weakened state of the mongol army and engaged in an unusual passive truce with each other in 1260 the mamlix advanced from egypt being allowed to camp and resupply near the christian stronghold of acre and engaged kippucka's forces just north of galilee at the battle of angelite the mongols were defeated and kit bukka executed this pivotal battle marked the western limit for mongol expansion in the middle east and the mongols were never again able to make serious military advances farther than syria in a separate part of the empire kuplai khan another brother of halaku and monk heard of the great khan's death at the y river in china rather than returning to the capital he continued his advance into the wu chong area of china near the yangtze river their younger brother rick boak took advantage of the absence of halaku and kublai and used his position at the capitol to win the title of great khan for himself with representatives of all the family branches proclaiming him as the leader at the curl tie in karakorum when kublai learned of this he summoned his own curl tie at kaiping and nearly all the senior princes and great noyens in north china and manchuria supported his own candidacy over that of a rickpoke mongolian civil war battles ensued between the armies of kuplai and those of his brother arikbok which included forces still loyal to monk's previous administration kublai's army easily eliminated a rickboke supporters and seized control of the civil administration in southern mongolia further challenges took place from their cousins the shaggates kublai sent abhisheka a shagate prince loyal to him to take charge of shakatai's realm but a rick book captured and then executed abhisheka having his own man all goo crowned there instead kublai's new administration blockaded a rick poke in mongolia to cut off food supplies causing a famine karakoram fell quickly to kublai but a rick poke rallied and retook the capital in 1261. in southwestern ilkinate halakku was loyal to his brother kublai but clashes with their cousin burke the ruler of the golden horde began in 1262. the suspicious deaths of jacket princes and halaku's service unequal distribution of war booty and halaku's massacres of muslims increased the anger of burke who considered supporting a rebellion of the georgian kingdom against halaku's rule in 1259-1260 burke also forged an alliance with the egyptian mamluks against halaku and supported kublai's rival claimant a rickpoke halaku died on february 8 1264. burke sought to take advantage and invade halaku's realm but he died along the way and a few months later all goo khan of the shakatai khanate died as well kublai named halaku's son abika as new ilkan and nominated bhadi's grandson monk temer to lead the golden horde abaca sought foreign alliances such as attempting to form a franco-mongol alliance against the egyptian mamluks aruk bokeh surrendered to kublai at shangdu on august 21 1264 campaigns of kublai khan in the south after the fall of xiongyoung in 1273 the mongols sought the final conquest of the song dynasty in south china in 1271 kuplai renamed the new mongol regime in china as the yuan dynasty and sought to synthesize his image as emperor of china to win the control of the chinese people kublai moved his headquarters to khanbolik the genesis for what later became the modern city of beijing his establishment of a capital there was a controversial move to many mongols who accused him of being too closely tied to chinese culture the mongols were eventually successful in their campaigns against china and the chinese song imperial family surrendered to the yuan in 1276 making the mongols the first non-chinese people to conquer all of china kublai used his base to build a powerful empire creating an academy offices trade ports and canals and sponsoring arts and science mongol records list 20 166 public schools created during his reign after achieving actual or nominal dominion over much of eurasia and successfully conquering china kublai pursued further expansion his invasions of burma and sackland were costly and his attempted invasions of diabetes and champa ended in devastating defeat but secured vassal statuses of those countries the mongol armies were repeatedly beaten and died biet and were crushed at the battle of bakdang nagai and kankai the con of the white horde established friendly relations with the yuan dynasty and the ilkanate political disagreement among contending branches of the family over the office of great khan continued but the economic and commercial success of the mongol empire continued despite the squabbling disintegration into competing entities major changes occurred in the mongol empire in the late 1200s kublai khan after having conquered all of china and established the yuan dynasty died in 1294 he was succeeded by his grandson temer khan who continued kublai's policies at the same time the taliban civil war along with the burkhalaku war and the subsequent kadu kublai war greatly weakened the authority of the great khan over the entirety of the mongol empire and the empire fractured into autonomous conats the yuan dynasty and the three western conats the golden horde the shagatai khanate and the ilkinate only the ilkanate remained loyal to the yuan court but endured its own power struggle in part because of a dispute with the growing islamic factions within the southwestern part of the empire after the death of k2 the chapa guy ruler dua initiated a peace proposal and persuaded the ogdeds to submit to temer khan in 1304 all of the khanates approved a peace treaty and accepted you on emperor temer supremacy this established the nominal supremacy of the yuan dynasty over the western comets which was to last for several decades this supremacy was based on weaker foundations than that of the earlier cogans and each of the four conats continued to develop separately and function as independent states nearly a century of conquest and civil war was followed by relative stability the paxmongolica and international trade and cultural exchanges flourished between asia and europe communication between the yuan dynasty and china and the ilkinade and persia further encouraged trade and commerce between east and west patterns of you on royal textiles could be found on the opposite side of the empire adorning armenian decorations trees and vegetables were transplanted across the empire and technological innovations spread from mongol dominions toward the west pope john xxii was presented a memorandum from the eastern church describing the paxman goloka kagan is one of the greatest monarchs in all lords of the state for example the king of amalai emperor abu said and uzbek khan are his subjects saluting his holiness to pay their respects however while the four conits continue to interact with one another well into the 14th century they did so as sovereign states and never again pooled their resources in a cooperative military endeavor development of the comets in spite of his conflicts with kedu and duwa yuan emperor temer established a tributary relationship with the war-like sean people after his series of military operations against thailand from 1297 to 1303 this was to mark the end of the southern expansion of the mongols when kazan took the throne of the ilkinade in 1295 he formally accepted islam as his own religion marking a turning point in mongol history after which mongol persia became more and more islamic despite this kazan continued to strengthen ties with temer khan and the yuan dynasty in the east it was politically useful to advertise the great khan's authority in the ilkinate because the golden horde in russia have long made claims on nearby georgia within four years gazan began sending tribute to the yuan court and appealing to other khans to accept tamr khan as their overlord he oversaw an extensive program of cultural and scientific interaction between the ilkinide and the yuan dynasty in the following decades gazan's faith may have been islamic but he continued his ancestors war with the egyptian mamliks and consulted with his old mongolian advisors in his native tongue he defeated the mamluk army at the battle of wadi al-khazandar in 1299 but he was only briefly able to occupy syria due to distracting raids from the shagatai khanate under its de facto ruler kedu who was at war with both the ilkans and the yuan dynasty struggling for influence within the golden horde katie sponsored his own candidate kobe leg against bayern the con of the white horde bayan after receiving military support from the mongols in russia requested assistance from both temer khan and the ilkanae to organize a unified attack against katie's forces timber was amenable and attacked k2 a year later after a bloody battle with temer's armies near the zakan river in 1301 kadu died and was succeeded by dua duo was challenged by kaidu's son shapur but with the assistance of temur duo defeated the oakdids tocto of the golden horde also seeking a general peace sent 20 000 men to buttress the yuan frontier tocta died in 1312 though and was succeeded by ozbeg who seized the throne of the golden horde and persecuted non-muslim mongols the yuan's influence on the horde was largely reversed and border clashes between mongol states resumed arab wada bayan two khan's on boy's back tooked his son against o's bag in the shagatai khanate esan bakkai was enthroned as khan after suppressing a sudden rebellion by oakdia's descendants and driving chaper into exile the yuan and ilkanit armies eventually attacked the shakatai khanate recognizing the potential economic benefits and the gangasid legacy osbeg reopened friendly relations with the yuan in 1326 he strengthened ties with the muslim world as well building mosques and other elaborate structures such as baths by the second decade of the 14th century mongol invasions had further decreased in 1323 abu said khan of the ilkinade signed a peace treaty with egypt at his request the yuan court awarded his custodian chapan the title of commander in chief of all mongol khanates but japan died in late 1327.
civil war erupted in the yuan dynasty in 1328 to 29. after the death of yes and temer in 1328 tu temer became the new leader in khanbolik while yes and temer's son rajaba succeeded to the throne in shangdu leading to the civil war known as the war of the two capitals two temur defeated rajaba but the shahgatai khan ali hadi supported kusawa elder brother of two temer as great khan he invaded with a commanding force and two temer abdicated kusala was elected khan on august 30 1329. kusala was then poisoned by a keep chalk commander under two temer who returned to power two temer was knowledgeable about chinese language and history and was also a creditable poet calligrapher and painter in order to be accepted by other khanates as the sovereign of the mongol world he sent genghis at princes and descendants of notable mongol generals to the shakatai khanate ilkan abu said and ozbeg in response to the emissaries they all agreed to send tribute each year furthermore two temur gave lavish presence and an imperial seal to a yehidi to mollify his anger relic states of the mongol empire with the death of ilkan abu said bahadur in 1335 mongol rule faltered and persia fell into political anarchy a year later his successor was killed by an ordered governor and the ilkinate was divided between the sultas the jalaer khasara towa temer and persian warlords taking advantage of the chaos the georgians pushed the mongols out of their territory and the weaker commander of retina established an independent state in anatolia in 1336 following the downfall of their mongol masters the loyal vassal the armenian kingdom of cilicia received escalating threats from the mamlicks and were eventually overrun in 1375.
along with the dissolution of the ilkinate in persia mongol rulers in china and the shagatai khanate were also in turmoil the plague known as the black death which started in the mongol dominions and spread to europe added to the confusion disease devastated all the comets cutting off commercial ties and killing millions plague may have taken 50 million lives in europe alone in the 14th century as the power of the mongols declined chaos erupted throughout the empire as non-mongol leaders expanded their own influence the golden horde lost all of its western dominions to poland and lithuania between 1342 and 1369 muslim and non-muslim princes in the shagatai khanate ward with each other from 1331 to 1343 and the shagatai khanate disintegrated when non-gangasid warlords set up their own puppet cons in transoxiana and mogalistan janna bae khan briefly reasserted jacket dominance over the shagatades demanding submission from an offshoot of the ilkinate in azerbaijan he boasted that today three alices are under my control however rival families of the jackets began fighting for the throne of the golden horde after the assassination of his successor burdibeck khan in 1359 the last yuan ruler towin temur was powerless to regulate those troubles a sign that the empire had nearly reached its end his courts on backed currency had entered a hyper-inflationary spiral and the han chinese people revolted due to the yuan's harsh impositions in the 1350s gongman of goryeo successfully pushed mongolian garrisons back and exterminated the family of toe and temer khan's empress while tai si chu chang chub gilts and managed to eliminate the mongol influence in tibet increasingly isolated from their subjects the mongols quickly lost most of china to the rebellious ming forces and in 1368 fled to their heartland in mongolia after the overthrow of the yuan dynasty the golden horde lost touch with mongolia and china while the two main parts of the shakatai khanate were defeated by timor who founded the timurid empire however remnants of the shagatai khanate survived the last chagate state to survive was the yarkan khanate until its defeat by the euruchangar khanate in the junker conquest of altashar in 1680. the golden horde broke into smaller turkic hordes that declined steadily in power over four centuries among them the khanate shadow the great horde survived until 1502 when one of its successors the crimean khanate sacked sarai the crimean khanate lasted until 1783 whereas khanates such as the khanate of bukhara and the kazakh khanate lasted even longer
2021-04-25